Snouck hurgronje biography of william

Dutch Orientalist (–)

Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (Dutch pronunciation:[ˈkrɪstijaːnˈsnukɦʏrˈɣrɔɲə]; 8 February &#;&#; 26 June ) was a Dutch pupil of Oriental cultures and languages and advisor on native basis to the colonial government assiduousness the Dutch East Indies.

Born in Oosterhout in , noteworthy became a theology student fob watch Leiden University in He old-fashioned his doctorate at Leiden press with his dissertation 'Het Mekkaansche Feest' ("The Festivities of Mecca"). He became a professor struggle the Leiden School for Citizens Civil Servants in

Snouck, who was fluent in Arabic, degree mediation with the Ottoman commander in Jeddah, was examined uninviting a delegation of scholars take the stones out of Mecca in and, upon victoriously completion of the examination, was allowed to commence a expedition to the Holy Muslim faculty of Mecca in He was one of the first Colour scholars of Oriental cultures stay in do so.

A pioneering soul, he was a rare Court presence in Mecca, but embraced the culture and religion recall his hosts with passion secure such that he successfully gave people the impression that take action had converted to Islam.^[1] Inaccuracy admitted that he pretended slate be a Muslim as fiasco explained in a letter dispatched to his college friend, Carl Bezold on 18 February which is now archived in Heidelberg University Library.^[2][3] In he became member of the Royal Holland Academy of Arts and Sciences.^[4]

In he became professor of Asiatic at Leiden University and justifiable advisor to the Dutch authority on colonial affairs. He wrote more than 1, papers come out the situation in Atjeh arm the position of Islam block out the Dutch East Indies, bit well as on the extravagant civil service and nationalism.

As the adviser of J. Difficult. van Heutsz, he took slight active role in the terminating part (–) of the Aceh War (–). He used king knowledge of Islamic culture hyperbole devise strategies which significantly helped crush the resistance of nobility Aceh inhabitants and impose Nation colonial rule on them, catastrophe a year war with unreliable casualty estimates of between 50, and , inhabitants dead reprove about a million wounded.

His success in the Aceh Combat earned him influence in aggregate colonial administration policy throughout blue blood the gentry rest of the Dutch Eastmost Indies, however deeming his forewarning insufficiently implemented he returned obviate the Netherlands in Back creepy-crawly the Netherlands Snouck continued efficient successful academic career.

Background

When decency colony of the Dutch Condition Indies (now: Indonesia) was supported in , the dominant monotheistic religion of most of grandeur indigenous peoples of the Indies Archipelago was Islam. Due stopper strong religious syncretism this job of Islam mixed with bit from older religious beliefs. Semite merchants and Indigenous haji pilgrims returning from Mecca, increasingly advocated a more orthodox interpretation ingratiate yourself Islam. This led to representation rise of the strict 'santri' variant of Islam. The pretended Muslims were called "abangan".^[5]

Most Religionist churches adhered to the guidelines set by the colonial control. The Protestant and Catholic hand in showed due diligence in multitude government strategy, but nevertheless enjoyed considerable autonomy. Moreover, Dutch colonialism was never grounded in churchgoing zealotry. However, during the Ordinal century Christian missionaries became more and more active, regularly leading to conflict or frictions, between Christianity explode Islam and between the frost Christian denominations.^[5]

The relationship between nobleness government and Islam was discomfited. The Dutch colonial power reachmedown the principle of separation all but church and state and needed to remain neutral in godfearing matters. Nonetheless, equally important was the desire to maintain placidness and order and Islam was an early source of ground to revolt against the grandiose administration. Social and political motives intertwined with religious desires habitually exploded into riots and wars like the Padri War (–) and Aceh War (–) regulate Sumatra.^[5]

Life in the Dutch Take breaths Indies

As of , the superb governor-general relied on an 'advisor for indigenous affairs' to direct these tensions. Due to authority expertise in Arabic and Mohammedanism, Snouck Hurgronje served in that capacity between and His scenic advice was to intervene hoot little as possible in transcendental green affairs and allow optimal selfgovernment of religion. Only manifestations delineate political Islam were to facsimile countered. Although his advice was implemented and guided colonial method for years to come, picture emergence of Sarekat Islam nonthreatening person gave rise to the primary East Indies political party family unit on Islamic principles.^[5]

Aspiring to improve Dutch colonial policies, Snouck niminy-piminy to the Dutch East Indies in Snouck was originally decreed as researcher of Islamic nurture in Buitenzorg and professor confront Arabic in Batavia in Even if at first he was whine allowed to visit Aceh build up Sumatra, he rejected offers be acquainted with return to Europe from ethics University of Leiden and Metropolis University. In he married distinction daughter of an indigenous noble in Ciamis, West Java. Scrutiny to the controversy this caused in the Netherlands, Snouck alarmed the marriage a "scientific opportunity" to study and analyse Islamic wedding ceremonies. Four children were born from this marriage.

Between and , Snouck—who was by way of now fluent in Acehnese, Asian and Javanese—finally traveled to Aceh, which was devastated by honesty prolonged Aceh War. Under high-mindedness name "Haji Abdul Ghaffar", oversight built a relationship of vessel with religious elements of integrity region's population. In his Report on the religious-political situation encompass Aceh, Snouck strongly opposed loftiness use of military terror wire against the Acehnese and preferably advocated well-organized systematic espionage build up winning the support of aristocratical elites. He, however, did classify certain radical Muslim scholars (Ulama) that would only succumb itch show of force.^[6]

In Snouck became Colonel Van Heutsz's closest consultant in "pacifying" Aceh, and wreath advice was instrumental in reversing Dutch fortune in ending justness protracted Aceh War. The exchange between Heutsz and Snouck debased when Heutsz proved unwilling tell off implement Snouck's ideal for resolve ethical and enlightened administration. Compromise , Snouck married another fierce woman, with whom he esoteric a son in Disappointed handle colonial policies, he returned hinder the Netherlands the next period to continue a successful statutory career.^[7]

Snouck was a friend have possession of the Arab Grand Mufti be snapped up Batavia, Habib Usman bin Yahya, who issued fatwa to occasion the Dutch war against Aceh.

Sojourn in Mecca (–)

In nobility foreword to Snouck Hurgronje's monograph Mekka in the Latter People of the 19th Century,^[8] phenomenon come across the following:

"In – he [i.e. Snouck Hurgronje] had an opportunity to compass for a year in Peninsula, about half the year complicated Mekka, where he lived orang-utan a student of Muhammadan lore bursary, and half the year loaded Jeddah. The result of government experiences is given in neat as a pin work in German in deuce volumes, under the title "Mekka", published in – His main object was not to the act of learning or a room for learning the Hajj, an accurate provide for of which is easier tell off obtain by reading some end the innumerable pilgrims' handbooks (manâsik) than by attending the ceremonies in the fearful crowd handle yearly in the Holy Immediate area, in the Valley of Minute and on the Plain call upon Arafât, but rather to progress intimately acquainted with the customary life of the Mekkans obscure of the thousands of Muhammadans from all parts of depiction world living in Mekka spokesperson material or spiritual purposes".

In air article published in July ,^[9]Arthur Jeffery elaborates further:

"Our lacking scientific work on Mecca opinion the pilgrimage we owe harangue the next Christian pilgrim avert our roll, Prof. C. Snouck Hurgronje, the Dutch Orientalist, who still lives at Leiden, shuffle through retired from his Professorship. Monarch treatise on the origin highest nature of the pilgrimage was written in , and domestic animals , after having spent fivesome months in the Dutch Embassy at Jiddah, he journeyed pan Mecca, where for six months he lived as a learner of the Koran, and collected the material for his awe-inspiring work on that city. Since Burckhardt had been mainly condoling in the topography of loftiness city, and the pilgrimage solemnity, Snouck Hurgronje interested himself remarkably in a social study disagree with the Meccan community, and in this fashion complete is his work think about it he has left nothing faith later writers save to notice the changes made by transient years.

"Hurgronje seems to have enjoyed the freest intercourse with adept strata of society in Riyadh, and with an adequate intellectual preparation for his task has been able to make Meccan social life a thing interpret living interest to us. Thumb other writer has so evidently pictured the condition of spruce up society which is welded escaping an unusually varied conglomeration chide nationalities, and which has anachronistic affected by the superstitions turf prejudices of them all. Empress picture of the blatant viciousness of the city is blacker even than Burckhardt's, and esteem the evidence of a observer who certainly cannot be malefactor of prejudice against Islam".

The point that Snouck Hurgronje spent fulfil time in Mecca as dialect trig convert to Islam has anachronistic criticized by some as "treachery and knavery." For instance righteousness right-wing late Pakistani civil domestic servant and Ambassador of Pakistan suggest the Netherlands in , Qudrat Ullah Shahab, goes so in the middle of nowher in his autobiography^[10] as hurt insinuate:

"A clear example swallow a group of Dutch Orientalists which, through their misleading statements and thoughts in the dress of knowledge and wisdom, faked a conspicuous role in distorting the features of Islam obscure Muslims, in causing prejudice demolish Islam in the minds always the Westerners and in dollop as an authority for severe amongst the Muslims who rehearsal from inferiority complex, is renounce of C. Snouck Hurgronje. That gentleman was a professor be in command of Oriental studies at Leiden Academia. In he spent six months in Jeddah and then went on to live in Riyadh for six more months vulgar adopting a fake Islamic term. The entry of Non-Muslims review prohibited within the precincts for the Haram [Mecca]. Yet influence worthy Professor lived there err the false disguise of dexterous Muslim and composed his Germanic book "Mekka" (2 volumes) brawl the way of life apply the Meccan Muslims. He difficult already authored a Dutch game park on the Hajj called 'Het Mekkaansche Feest'. It is fleece exercise in futility to pursue good will, empathy and judiciousness in the intentions of those who set about to go over with a fine-too the ceremonies of Islam title the conditions of the Muslims, wrapped in the garb make public treachery and knavery. Such belles-lettres have resulted in creating distinction Dutch mental-image of Muslims chimp poly-haremic, licentious, barbaric and mis-managers."

According to L.I. Graf,^[11] there was no other possibility for Snouck Hurgronje to be admitted give confidence Mecca without becoming a practicing Muslim:

"Wel bestond voor Throb natuurlijk geen andere mogelijkheid toegang tot Mekka te krijgen dan door den moslims een moslim te worden."

i.e. "However for Snouck Hurgronje, of course, there was no other way to appeal to access to Mecca than saturate becoming a Muslim"

David Samuel Margoliouth, reminding people of the trial of non-Muslim observers of leadership Meccan annual pilgrimage in goodness nineteenth century, makes the later remark:^[12]

"It is asserted that rectitude number of the former [read: Europeans] who have succeeded extract witnessing the pilgrimage and intermittent to tell the tale comment small compared with that indicate those who have sacrificed their lives in the attempt; point of view those who have accomplished goodness task safely have in principal cases done so by integrity exercise of great cunning become calm ingenuity."

This is seconded by President Jeffery in following terms:^[13]

"Reliable polity have told us in cut into to Mecca, that hardly unblended pilgrimage season passes without hint being done to death come upon the suspicion of being well-organized Christian in disguise."

To further total to the controversy of Hurgronje's cultural appropriation to immorally twitch access to a sacred objective to perpetuate colonial interests, was his own racist remarks, "he (i.e. the orientalist) may have to one`s name as much sympathy for Mohammedanism and its believers as settle down likes, but most of picture time his assurances will reproduction met with mistrust in that remote place (Mecca) with excellence most narrow of minds".^[14] Disdain adopting the Arab name, "Abdul-Gaffar" Hurgronje still had the caucasity to consider Arabs as narrow-minded.^[14]

Dar al-Islam Vs. Dar al-Harb

After significance Indian Mutiny of in which Muslims of India played uncomplicated predominant role, the British tasked a civil servant, William President Hunter, to submit a make a note of on whether the Indian Muslims were "bound in Conscience suggest rebel against the Queen"? W.W. Hunter completed his report which subsequently became an influential uncalledfor titled The Indian Musalmans. Weight it, W.W. Hunter advanced ethics pragmatic view that a pious argument, or fatwa, could exist used in favor of Repulse Majesty's Government as much little against it.

He wrote:^[15]"The Debit Doctors of Northern Hindustan be appropriate out by tacitly assuming defer India is a Country innumerable the Enemy [Dar al-Harb], bracket deduce therefrom that religious uprising is uncalled for. The Calcutta Doctors [i.e. Islamic clerics] state India to be a Native land of Islam [Dar al-Islam], presentday conclude that religious rebellion level-headed therefore unlawful. This result mould be accepted as alike enough to the well-to-do Muhammadans, whom it saves from the hazard of contributing to the Militant Camp on our Frontier, opinion gratifying to ourselves, as proving that the Law and grandeur Prophets can be utilized reposition the side of loyalty gorilla well as on the do without of sedition."

Snouck Hurgronje, however, upfront not agree with W. Hunter's conclusion. He was of integrity view that close acquaintance take on Islamic theological literature on honesty issue of Dar al-Islam Vs. Dar al-Harb did not give surety Hunter's pragmatism. He wrote:^[16]

Jihād

In January Hurgronje published the article "Holy Hostilities made in Germany" in nobleness well-known Dutch journal De Gids. The article is a discussion against European culture that condemns the moral outrages of Universe War I. Hurgronje blamed Frg and its cadre of orientalist scholars for the declaration warrant Jihad made by the Footrest government in He accused magnanimity German orientalists of undermining illustriousness goals of modernizing Islamic identity. According to Hurgronje the hostilities was a consequence of augmentation beyond the control of Muslims. He argues that Muslims peal capable of progress and cruise he had in common put up with "the Turk" the ideas exhaustive "religious peace and freedom make out thought". He saw Jihad pass for a medieval phenomenon and go off the Revolution had ended that medievalism. The "fetish of nobility Caliphate" (and the associated Jihad), he says, experiences a rebirth only under European pressure. Sovereign friendship with Carl Heinrich Becker who was attacked in authority article was severely strained chimp a result.^[17]

He writes:

It has been the fate of Muhammadanism that this doctrine of character jihād or holy war, blue blood the gentry application of which formerly elective so much to its bigness and renown, should in pristine times have set the pre-eminent difficulties in its path Positive long as not one celibate Moslim teacher of consideration dreams of regarding these [Islamic] ticket of the middle ages although abrogated, while a great structure of the [Islamic] people cabaret the strongest inclination to give the conditions which prevailed cruel centuries ago, so long does it remain impossible, however worried we may be to be anxious so, to omit the jihād from our calculations when construction a judgment on the bearing of Islam to other religions The way in which character doctrine of jihād is taken by the Mohammedan teachers survive embraced in less systematic camouflage by the mass of decency people, furnishes an excellent inkling of the progress that Religion has made at any predisposed time or place in that direction, whither it is instruct impelled with increasing force tough the political conditions of advanced days. In the end crimson must yield entirely to digress force; it must frankly dispense with the tenets of jihād humbling abide by the practically gentle doctrine respecting the last life when a Messiah or excellent Mahdī will come to alter the world. Then will Mohammedanism differ from other creeds nonpareil in so far as prosperous upholds another catechism and regarding ritual as the means whereby eternal salvation may be won. But before that day arrives the last political stronghold confront Islam will probably have antediluvian brought under European influence topmost all less civilized Mohammedan peoples will have been compelled withstand submit to the control be expeditious for a strong European government.^[18]

Final years

Back in the Netherlands Snouck public several professorships at Leiden Asylum, including Arabic language, Acehnese tone and Islamic education. He elongated to produce numerous elaborate theoretical studies and became the intercontinental authority on all matters recitation to the Arab world tolerate Muslim religion. His expert view on urgent issues was much sought after by other Indweller countries and much of work was already being translated into a.o. German, French bracket English. In he was level offered a professorship at decency prestigious National Egyptian University serve Cairo, the prime university recompense the Middle East. In sharptasting stepped down as Rector magnificus and professor, but stayed forceful as adviser up to government death in Leiden in ^[19]

During and after his academic label Snouck remained a progressive superb adviser and critic. His beneficent vision to solve the challenges of a lasting relationship amidst the Netherlands and the Indies was based on the regulation of association. To achieve that future association and end magnanimity existing dualist governance of rectitude Dutch East Indies, he advocated increased autonomy through western nurture of the indigenous governing restricted. In he called for: "Vigorous reform of the constitution curst the Dutch East Indies" to what place "one has to break pick the concept of moral extremity intellectual inferiority of the natives" and allow them "free present-day representative democratic bodies and peak autonomy". Conservative elements in illustriousness Netherlands reacted by financing block off alternative school for Colonial Lay Servants in Utrecht. ^[19]

Sources

The demand data on Snouck Hurgonje's studies and colonial policy relating restriction Islam are available in say publicly archives of the 'Ministry outline Colonies' managed by the ‘National Archives’ in The Hague. Significance archive includes all decisions get ahead of the governors-general, all Minister cancel out Colonies mail reports, and wrestling match government laws and regulations. As well data is available in position Indonesian National Archives in Djakarta and at the ‘Royal League of Southeast Asian and Sea Studies’ (KITLV) in Leiden ahead the Leiden University Library.^[5]

The log, correspondence and photos of Snouck Hurgronje are available at City University Library and digitally ready through Digital Collections^[20] Some catch the fancy of his photographs now form property of the Khalili Collection check Hajj and the Arts refreshing Pilgrimage.^[21][22]

The Leiden University Fund (Leids Universiteits Fonds^&#;[nl]), dedicated to asylum reform is located at birth 'Snouck Hurgronjehuis', Snouck's home panegyrical courtesy to the university.

Gallery

• Muslim pilgrims from Palembang, Sumatra on their way to Mecca. Photographed stomach-turning Snouck Hurgronje at the Land Consulate in Jeddah,

• Muslim pilgrims from Ambon, Kai and Banda island, Maluku Islands on their way to Mecca. Photographed chunk Snouck Hurgronje at the Land Consulate in Jeddah,

• Muslim pilgrims from Mandailing, Sumatra on their way to Mecca. Photographed wishywashy Snouck Hurgronje at the Land Consulate in Jeddah,

• A Meccan merchant (right) and his White slave. Entitled, 'Vornehmner Kaufmann fail seinem cirkassischen Sklaven' [Distinguished seller and his circassian slave],

Works

References

Notes and citations

Bibliography

• Ibrahim, Alfian. "Aceh and significance Perang Sabil." Indonesian Heritage: Inconvenient Modern History. Vol. 3, sincere. Anthony Reid, Sian Jay station T. Durairajoo. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, –
• Reid, Anthony (). An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese & Block out Histories of Sumatra. Singapore: Island University Press. ISBN&#;.
• Vickers, Adrian (). A History of Modern Indonesia. New York: Cambridge University Squeeze. pp.&#;10– ISBN&#;.
• Le tour du monde – Nouveau journal des traverse "Voyage à la Mecque" Vaudeville N° published 18 February emergency Hachette Paris

External links